Concept of Freedom in Political Theory - 1679 Words

Why is the concept of freedom so contested in political theory? (Word maximum: 1,500) Freedom is an important concept in Western politics, strongly entwined as it is with ideas of liberalism. Yet, as suggested by the question, the concept is one which is hotly debated. Indeed, political agents attempt to control the political agenda through promotion of their particular definition. This essay will look at the ways freedom has been defined by different theorists over the years. It will also look at how freedom is linked with and explained through different theo-ries and ideologies. It will then go on to look at how these different theories and ideologies may shape the conceptions of freedom we find in our daily lives. Different†¦show more content†¦This approach may be considered stifling of both innovation and effort, since anything above the average will not be rewarded. By contrast, if equality of opportunity is achieved, then some will accumulate more wealth and power than others, giving them effectively more freedom. John Rawls (1971, cited in Middleton, 2005) introduced two principles of justice, the first of which was that ‘each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive liberty compatible with a similar liberty for others’. Rawls attempted to address the question of inequality through the second of his principles: the ‘difference principle’. In this he said that it was acceptable for some to be better off than others as long as by doing so the poorest people also benefitted in some way. In other words, inequality was acceptable if some of the extra benefit were redistributed to those most in need. This approach is an example of positive freedom. However, Isaiah Berlin (1969, cited in Smith, 2005), known as a chief architect of theories of positive and negative freedom, saw dangers in this approach too. He argued that it was wrong to ascribe to individuals a set of common needs and desires. Moreover, he considered that the surrender of individual freedom f or collective self-rule could result in individual rights being violated. He concluded that a measure of bothShow MoreRelatedThe Issue Of Freedom And Power1696 Words   |  7 PagesFreedom and Power Introduction The issue of freedom and the power that accompanies it, have occupied the history of human kind in the course of their existence. Mostly, this has emanated from the unequal distribution of these two key significant factors that revolve around the lives of humankind. Freedom and power have been subject of struggle. Various sections of human population endeavor to uphold their element of self-determination that is defined by these two important components. Scholars believeRead MoreSocial And Political Order : Seat Belt Laws1102 Words   |  5 PagesSocial and Political Order: Seat Belt Laws Social and Political theories aim to define the relationships between government and citizen, and concerns the organization and basis of government. (Merriam-Webster, n.d). In application, the necessity to find a balance between two primary theories becomes apparent. Modern day social and political theories can largely be attributed to ideas of two individuals, Thomas Hobbes and Jean Jacques Rousseau. Hobbes believed major government influence was a necessityRead MoreEvolution and the Modern Social Contract Theory : Essay Outline1050 Words   |  5 PagesThe Emergence of the Modern Social Contract Theory Essay Outline POLS 14033 – Political Ideas and Ideologies The Emergence of the Modern Social Contract Theory Essay Question: Firstly, in this essay, we will describe and analyze the various concepts of the evolution and emergence of the modern social contract theory thru the analysis of several of its key political thinkers. We will provide a detailed review of the concepts that have developed and that were crucial for theRead MoreLanguage As The Primary Source Of Political Discourse And Hegemony1244 Words   |  5 PagesEvaluating the text from a Structuralist perspective reveals language as the primary source of political discourse and hegemony. In 1984, language is both an instrument and an effect of power. Michel Foucault’s discursive practices suggest that discourse â€Å"transmits and produces power† (Foucault, 1980). It has the capacity to govern social interactions, limit the parameters of human thought and endorse political ideologies. Structuralist Jonathan Culler corroborates Foucault’s assertion in his book, StructuralistRead MoreThe Theories Of Freedom Articulated By Rou sseau, Burke, And Hegel1208 Words   |  5 PagesLeilte Assefa Professor Leonard Williams Mod. Cont. Political Thought March 13, 2017 2. Rousseau boldly asserts that we are â€Å"born free† but are â€Å"everywhere in chains.† what political theorists have thought about the concept of freedom, its basic meanings, and its presence or absence in the world. Discuss the theories of freedom articulated by Rousseau, Burke, and Hegel. In your view, which theorist expressed the most adequate understanding of freedom? Why? (300* 3)words for each theorist + 100 wordsRead MoreAristotle, Joseph Schumpeter, Milton Friedman, And John Rawls1230 Words   |  5 PagesThe concept of equality is multi-faceted and widely debated among scholars. While there is no singular definition for equality, equality deals with the distribution of some â€Å"thing† in a specific domain. For this paper, equality will be narrowed down to the domains of economic and political. It is essential to note that distinct types of equality can become conditions for equality in a different domain. In this case, economic equality will be analyzed as a condition for political equality. How isRead MoreCritical Response paper 1821 Words   |  4 Pagesdifferent political theories there are many different views and even more political opinions on what is best for any one nation and their citizens. In order to fully understand any component of government we must understand its underlying political ideologies and the beliefs behind it s policies and views. Liberalism, conservatism, socialism, fascism, feminism, and environmentalism are well known political ideologies. Each ideology has drastic differences of views relating to equality, power, freedom, andRead MoreCha Roy : Ideas On Communism Essay1444 Words   |  6 Pagesthe Indian society suffered serious conflict against colonialism. So, there was need for a sustainable political model that would guide the society towards freedom from the colonial rule. Many political thinkers emerged at that time and there were persistent debates between different ideologies and thoughts regarding the same. One such thinker was MN Roy. He strongly believed that any major political change must end with a revolution and a revolution must be backed by some philosophy. He was India’sRead MoreJohn Locke And Jean Jacques Rousseau Essay1583 Words   |  7 Pagesestablishing a contract whereby they agree to live together in harmony for their mutual benefit, after which they are said to live in a state of society, including concepts such as equality, fairness and equal distribution. During the Enlightenment of the 17th and 18th centuries, was when philosophers contributed to the social contract theory, as this was a time marked within history to be a time when intellectuals first began to explore established views in relation to religion, science, economics,Read MoreThe Purpose Of This Work Is To Explore Machiavelli’S Political1623 Words   |  7 Pageswork is to explore Machiavelli’s political philosophy through the lens of discord. In terms of discord, Machiavelli presents the two main rivals, who are the nobles and the people. He sees the two different humors of the nobles and the people as the cause of discord. He observes that conflicts caused by the two diverse humors create salutary effects. His praise of tumults has inspired scholars not only to relate the notion of humors to the discussion of political freedom, but also to find t he origin

Evaluation Of Epidemiological Problem Diabetes - 1992 Words

Evaluation of Epidemiological Problem Diabetes Lisa Gaye Spivey Chamberlain College of Nursing NR 503: Population Health, Epidemiology, Statistical Principles May 2016 The Epidemiology of Diabetes Diabetes Mellitus (DM) or Type 2 diabetes is a lifelong chronic disease whereas sugar levels within the blood are too high. Diabetes affects multiple body systems such as your vision, nerves, foot problems, problems healing, the kidneys, and can lead to heart problems. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention CDC 29.1 million U.S. citizens are living with diabetes. â€Å"Diabetes mellitus has become a global nuisance, associated with high levels of morbidity and mortality. The disease will become an epidemic if continues on this route† (Kosti Kanakari, 2012, p. 654). â€Å"The World Health Organization WHO has issued a call to action on diabetes, drawing attention to the need to step up prevention and treatment of the disease. According to the WHO’s first Global report on diabetes, people living with diabetes has quadrupled since 1980 and there were 1.5 million deaths in 2012 from diabetes† (WHO, 2016). The rise has been attributed to the increase in obesity and unhealthy diet. Diabetes affects globally and has increased exponentially. This paper will deal with the epidemiological aspect of diabetes within this community. Background According to the CDC 1 in 11 people have diabetes. Diabetes is a disorder of the endocrine system. Diabetes isShow MoreRelatedEvaluation Of Epidemiological Problem Of Diabetes Mellitus ( Dm )2100 Words   |  9 PagesEvaluation of Epidemiological Problem Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a major chronic health problem in adults 18 years or older in the state of Kentucky (KY) that is responsible for many illnesses and deaths. There are also various complications associated with this health condition. Complications of DM are atherosclerotic vascular disease, cardiovascular disease, retinopathy, nephropathy, delayed wound healing, and increased risk for osteomyelitis, which increases the risk for amputation (AmericanRead MoreType 2 Diabetes Teaching Plan1467 Words   |  6 PagesType 2 Diabetes Teaching Plan In order to create change healthcare providers must work together to educate their communities. According to a study found that Type 2 Diabetes is the highest among all Hispanic/Latino groups in which 16.9 percent for both men and ladies, contrasted with 10.2 percent for non-Hispanic whites. It is evident communities are not being educated on preventing Type 2 Diabetes and their risks (American Diabetes Association, 2014). The purpose of this paper is to discuss theRead MorePrecede or Proceed Essay1225 Words   |  5 PagesModel and using what you have learned about epidemiology, what kind of data would be included within an epidemiological assessment? Please describe. In the PRECEDE phase of the PRECEDE-PROCEED Model, epidemiological data would include predisposing, reinforcing and enabling constructs such as genetics, behavior, and community. In the PROCEED phase of the PRECEDE-PROCEED Model, epidemiological data would include environmental data from sources such as primary interviews with affected individualsRead MoreObesity, Diabetes And Lung Cancer1046 Words   |  5 PagesEpidemiological studies: Critical Review of Obesity, Diabetes and Lung Cancer Epidemiological Study on Obesity The overweight problem is big issue in the United States and worldwide with the average American weighing 3-5 kilograms more than they did ten years ago. Obesity is an excess of body fat that leads to ill health. The study was based on a sample representative of United States where 22.9 percent men and 23.3 women were obese, and 44.1percent of men and 34 percent of women were overweightRead MoreAuthor Lives In Mississauga City, Canada. And Her Background1736 Words   |  7 Pagesdeath accounting for 20% all death. In every 7 minutes a death from heart disease or stroke in Canada (Heart research Institute, 2017). Minority populations of African or South Asian background are at greater risk of developing high blood pressure, diabetes or other risk factors for heart disease at a younger age (Heart and Stroke Foundation of Canada, 2012). The author decided to provide health education in the church community where most people are minority South Asians. The author had a help fromRead More The Prevalence Of Diabetes Mellitus2021 Words   |  9 PagesData analyst. Diabetes Mellitus (DM) is a chronic, metabolic disease characterized by elevated levels of blood glucose which leads serious damage to the heart, blood vessels, eyes, kidneys, and nerves. There are three types of diabetes. They are Type-I(T1DM), Type- 2(T2DM), Gestational diabetes. Type 2 diabetes represents 90 percent of diabetes cases in Saudi Arabia. Saudi Arabia is ranked as the 7th country world widely estimated to have the highest numbers of people with diabetes in 2000 and 2030Read MorePrevalence Of Type II Diabetes Mellitus2138 Words   |  9 Pages Prevalence of Type II Diabetes Mellitus in the Adult of JAZAN by Demographic characteristics, BMI and Settlement type. Dr.T.Hemalatha, Dr. Rashida, Ms.Wajiha, Dr.Fahad Abstract Nowadays Diabetes Mellitus (DM) is becoming a major health problem in all over the world. If a person having prolonged group of disease with high level of blood glucose then it is Diabetes Mellitus. It will cause severe other health issues like cardiovascular diseases, disease related to vision, Kidney, blood vesselsRead MoreEvaluation Of A Program Evaluation Essay1412 Words   |  6 PagesPROGRAM EVALUATION In order to determine the effectiveness of the program and the level of participant satisfaction, Kingsley Manor will collect and analyze data with the aim of answering the following questions: (1) Will an onsite wellness program increase the wellness and health related uality of life for older adults with Diabetes Mellitus Type II? (2) What participant specific characteristics predict increased or decreased benefit from participation in a wellness program? (3) Do older adultsRead MoreThe Health Plan For Diabetes And Diabetes1828 Words   |  8 Pageshealth problems, however, the same people that are at risk or afflicted may not have a good understanding of what is at stake and how to prevent it. Obesity and diabetes are two common and very serious conditions that haunt a lot of people. People with diabetes need to be educated about the risks regarding these health issues. The health plan that I have created is designed to educate people who are prone to obesity and predisposed to it. This plan includes information about obesity and diabetes, andRead MoreEpidemiology and Primary Diabetes Prevention Essay1965 Words   |  8 PagesStatistics, [By 1993] death certificates listed diabetes as the fifth leading cause of death for Blacks aged 45 to 64, and the third leading cause of death for those aged 65 and older in 1990.† (Bailey, 2007). These statistics show how serious the problem of diabetes has become in the black community. Epidemiological studies can focus the efforts of the healthcare community to effective interventions aimed at lowering the prevalence and incidence of diabetes among African Americans. This paper

Ethics of Teachers free essay sample

Teachers are ultimately viewed as â€Å"perfect† in the eyes of their students; therefore, their demeanor should exemplify a high standard of ethical reasoning and protocol. Teachers are part of the educational world and should not participate in unethical behaviors which may deter the method of analyzing and reasoning of students. The personality of teachers is crucial when they may impact the future career goals and educational path of their students. Although teachers may not be significantly aware, they are held to high standards by their students and they are extremely important individuals that may impact the foundation of a student’s educational success. The positive behavior that teachers vibe to their students impact their motivational trends which promotes them to excel. However, often times teachers may display negative emotions that may detour a student’s path and leave them feeling unworthy, unappreciated, and the desire to give up on their future goals. Students spend the majority of their life in the classroom, which concludes that the overall organizational culture and ethics that teachers exemplify in the classroom will ultimately affect the mindset of students. The focus of this paper will be to compare and contrast the overall culture in the classroom of students surrounded by positive and negative teachers. I will explicitly outline the factors that will cause a student to excel or fail due to the organizational culture that is embedded within them. I will further conclude the paper by implying that teachers are more important than the subject courses they may teach, but are the educational leaders that have a significant impact on the lives of their students. Introduction: The interaction between teachers and students is critical to produce high-level student learning and achievement. The teaching styles of teachers may be related to moral management; they display respect and fairness in their teaching environment. In relation to Stakeholders, teachers may be viewed as a key stakeholder in the field of education since they are the primary key holders that lay the foundation of the future of the students. In order for teachers to effectively influence their students in positive directions, they will have to demonstrate strong ethical values. Being an individual of high ethical values, two basic questions are involved, â€Å"What is the right thing to do and why should you do the right thing? † (Bowie and Schneider, 2011). Teachers have the moral obligation to maintain their character to a higher standard in the presence of their students. The teacher as a stakeholder is expected to possess the professional knowledge to lead the students in instruction. However, It is challenging for teachers to transform the culture and have a positive view in the eyes of their students without parental support. Parents are the educational stakeholders that provide parental guidance for the students and the support for the teachers Literature Review: The empowerment of teachers will facilitate the empowerment of students† (Short and Greer, 2002). As educators, teachers have to embrace the ethical standards that enjoin virtues of honesty, compassion, and loyalty. â€Å"And, ethical standards include standards relating to rights, such as the right to life, the right to freedom from injury, and the right to privacy. Such standards are adequate standards of ethics because they are supported by consistent and well-f ounded reasons† (Bowie and Schneider, 2011). Teacher have to continuously be involved in the moral beliefs and conducts and strive to ensure that they shape the future of their student’s lives under a solid foundation of ethnicity. Relating to the Domains of Human Activities, teachers may relate to the triads of Moulton’s continuum into the categories of Positive Law (Codified Ethics Regulation), Ethics (implementation of moral values, requiring integrity and practice, and Free Choice (liberty, allowing creativity, self-realization and license). Positive Law would refer to the Code of Ethics have to abide by to ensure equality to their profession of teaching. The professional educator accepts personal responsibility for teaching students character qualities that will help them evaluate the consequences of and accept the responsibility for their actions and choices (Campbell, 2006). † All teachers have a Code of Ethics that they are morally responsible for upholding. The foundation to the success of teachers is their ethical and moral reasoning that is their guide of â€Å"doing what is right† in their classroom and teachers with high integrity respect the values of their Code of Ethics. The National Education Association (NEA) has created a code of ethics for the different needs of the teaching profession, which are: ? Access to varying points of view ?Do not distort subject matter ?Protect students from harm ?Do not embarrass or disparage ?Do not discriminate ?Do not use professional relationship for private advantage ? Do not disclose confidential information Teachers of high integrity, have an intrinsic awareness between ethical and moral principles. They display ethical knowledge which includes a sense of right and wrong, treating others with respect, being objective, patient and compassionate. Embodying ethical knowledge gives the teacher the ability to practice their teaching skills with morals and ethics and not just viewing their job as being teaching only (Campbell, 2006). † A teachers’ rationale to success may be based on the motto of Winston Churchill, â€Å"Mountaintops inspire leaders but valleys mature them† (Pockell and Avila, 2007 ). Teachers should give their students the freedom of choice and self-realization which will promote a sense of unity with the teachers and students. However, with regards to liberty, it should be limited to protect the ethics within the classroom. Ethics in the classroom should be valued to a high standard to maintain the organizational climate in the classroom. â€Å"Each pupil graduating from the elementary, secondary, or higher grades of education should receive personal advice and direction regarding further education or employment (Horne, 1970). † An excellent example of how teachers with high ethical values can impact student achievement is prevalent in a School System where elementary students where behind in their current grade level. The Elementary Alternative Education Program was established to help students become motivated to excel in their educational venue. The program was targeted at students that were two-three years behind in their current grade and was over-aged for their grade level. The teachers that committed to educate the students had a high level of moral and ethical responsibility to motivate their students and transform their students to become students of higher academic success learning. The table below depicts the improvement in academic of students from the 2007 – 2008 school year till the 2010-2011 school year. The data below indicates that the students enrolled in the program with the assistance of their teachers are now on the pathway on Graduation from high school. The students were deemed unreachable to teach due to their classroom behavior and other factors, but with the determination of their teachers they have increased their academic level. The National Bureau of Economic Research has indicated that â€Å"Good Teachers† raise Student Achievement. Although there is no silver bullet that guarantees that every student will be successful, now more than ever research provides guidance about the characteristics of effective schools and effective teachers that, if followed, can help maximize school and ultimately student performance† (Horne, 1970). According to Post, Preston, and Sachs, â€Å"The stakeholders in a corporation are the individuals and constituencies that contribute, either voluntarily or involuntarily, to its wealth-creating capacity and activities, and that are therefore its potential beneficiaries and/or risk bearers. In comparison with this model, teachers are the stakeholders that voluntarily work to improve the success of their students through motivation and determination. However, the primary impact of teachers whether they are successful in improving academic success or not is to educate the students. Every student has the ability to learn, however, they need a teacher that has a passion for teaching to educate the students. In regards to the Stakeholders Analysis, teacher has to identify the needs of their students and execute a plan to approach the problem for face-value. As teachers, it is important to understand that all students are different and they should utilize different methods to attempt to reach their students. The â€Å"big picture† that teachers normally use to motivate them to help their students is the graduation rate. The success of student cannot be done alone. Teachers have to reach out to the parents to unite as one to help the students since their common goal is the success of their students. Often times students are unfortunate to be enrolled in the classroom of a teacher that lacks integrity and the culture of the classroom is detrimental to the learning process. The culture of the classroom is set by the teachers and the students. If the overall organizational culture of the classroom is disorientated, then the students will be ineffective in performing their daily tasks. Teachers must be able to present their material, effectively manage their classrooms, facilitate maximum student involvement, and ultimately, enhance student learning. â€Å"The vision implementation of teachers affects the performance and many attitudes of many of their students. (Kirkpatrick and Locke, 1996). Teachers have to ensure the classroom climate is has a positive effect on the students and that the motivational factors are supportive in the overall success of the students. â€Å"As with many aspects of classroom management, the most important factor in creating a positive classroom environment is the teacher, and this is where the process must start. † The climate in the classroom is of course more than the physical classroom environment. It is a process that builds the psychological framework for all activity that happens in the classroom. The classroom climate is not just about motivation and student well-being, it is a major ingredient of the context for successful learning. Real learning cannot take place in a negative classroom climate. According to the Jones’ Issue Contingent Model, teachers that have negative impact on student achievement fail to utilize ethical reasoning while attempting to teach their students. The failure may arise from attempting to teach all the students in the same process with utilizing Differentiated Instruction to reach all students. If they would have used the Synthesis of Ethical Decision-Making Model, then they would have realized the different stages of Differentiated Instruction and had a positive impact on their students. Teachers that fail to differentiate their teaching is modeling immoral management, meaning they are they are displaying minimal ethical reasoning with the students. As teachers, they have the responsibility to educate the children as a moral obligation to the students, parents, and themselves. By failing to address the needs of the students, they are depicting low moral intensity. Moral intensity of the issue itself does have a significant role and could influence teachers in their ethical decision-making process as their attention to the issue are being directed by the embedded intensity level of the respective issues. â€Å"The primary goal of ethical reasoning is to help individuals act in morally responsible ways (Weiss, 125). † While natural rights are the basis for justice, rights cannot be realized nor does justice become operative without power. The interaction between one’s ethical philosophies can influence the ethical decisions that an individual can make. Teachers are liable to treat each student in their classroom with an equal right to the most extensive basic liberty compatible with a similar liberty for others, which in their case is their education. Teachers have the moral obligation to treat all students in the classroom equally. They have the right to receive an education and the teacher’s highest level of knowledge that may displayed to them. Teachers are faced with many trials and tribulations in the classroom, but they have the moral obligation to provide students with a environment conducive to learning. For students to achieve, it is the responsibility of teachers to provide a classroom culture that will increase a student’s motivational factors. Feedback, where positive or negative can promote student achievement. Teachers are viewed as teachers are more important than the subject courses they may teach, but are the educational leaders that have a significant impact on the lives of their students. Leadership is a reflection on modeled behavior that is learned. Students learn from the teachers and adapt themselves to their leadership demeanor. Leaders within an organization, have vast types of leadership styles. Teachers, however, are viewed as individuals with more personal ethics. Transformational leaders produce students that will be effective leaders and impeccable role models for their fellow peers. They have the ability to empower, coach, and lead their students to success. The theory of transformational leaders is based on the theory of James Burns. The type of leadership style is moral because it increases the humanities of students and their aspirations. True leadership, defined by its ethical core, is transforming for the leader and the follower alike. Transforming leadership transcends other forms of leadership because it is committed to doing the right things as opposed to doing things right (Anderson et al, 2006). Teachers assume the ethical responsibility to transform the culture of their students and are responsibility for the in adverse effects it may have on their students. â€Å"Transforming leadership also assumes that the transformation is mutual and reciprocal in which a follower can assume a leadership role and the leader a follower role. Teachers are more than classroom teachers; they are role models to their students. Students often mimic the behavior of their teachers because they admire their leadership style. Often times teachers that possess high integrity and ethical behavior are called â€Å"mean. † Teachers push their students to work harder than anticipated so they can excel in academic achievement. When students have to work harder than normal, they respect the morals that their teachers require them to uphold. Culture is another factor that is critical in transforming the culture of students. Conclusion: Leadership is a reflection on modeled behavior that is learned. Students learn from the teachers and adapt themselves to their leadership demeanor. The success of students not only start with the parents, but it is the teachers that the parents have entrusted with their children to teach them the skills they will need to become successful professionals once they leave the reins of their teachers. As with many aspects of classroom management, the most important factor in creating a positive classroom environment is the teacher. Real learning cannot take place in a negative classroom climate. The classroom must be conducive and inviting for parents, staff, and most of all children. The relationship between parents and teachers, like every other relationship, depends on trust. Above all, teachers must not compete with parents; what teachers have learned about their students is different from what parents know, primarily because they observe, interact with, and experience the students in group settings. While our observations and experiences are different, they are not necessarily more valid than hose of parents. Teachers, students, and parents are all key stakeholders within the educational organization. The ultimate goal for all stakeholders is to achieve a high school diploma and then proceed to their career goals. â€Å"Teaching is designed to result in action† (Schaefer, 1990). Teachers, student, and parents will â€Å"act† as a unit of one to maintain the culture of the classroom environment to motivate the students to excel at their highest academic level.

Natural Birth free essay sample

Although it remains rare in the United States, planned home birth has drawn increasing attention and criticism in the mainstream media and has come under attack from organized medicine. Yet, recent peer-reviewed studies contribute to the evidence base supporting home birth as a safe option for low-risk women attended by skilled midwifes. I hope to achieve this with a thorough background of medical mistakes that has dehumanized the birthing process for women. It is the purpose of this paper to prove that home births are just as safe as hospital births in low risk women. Home birth with a trained midwife should be an option available to low-risk women. This paper will focus on the history on medicine replacing midwives, the current era of obstetrics and finally the midwives and home birth. Natural Birth: The Ultimate Sacrifice The birth of a child is an experience that most men and women in the United States will go through. We will write a custom essay sample on Natural Birth or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page It is a joyous occasion; however, it can also be a point in one’s life where they are overwhelmed with information and many things to do. Not only are expectant parents having to get their house ready and having to learn numerous things about pregnancy an new baby care, they also must become informed about the endless array of test, medical procedures, and standards of practice commonly used in the field of obstetrics today. Many do not have the time to learn about all the test, procedures and interventions; rather they trust their care provider’s opinion or what friends or family members who have already had children tell them. Most of these expectant parents do not consider delivery outside of a hospital for several reasons, some being perceived safety, hospital birth being standard, or not knowing that there was another option. It is typical; most expectant parents do not challenge or question anything obstetricians or the hospital staff tells them is best for their baby. Many do not challenge or question the use of test, procedures and other interventions because these practices have become so common and accepted today that their use is expected and their safety is rarely challenged. Many women who choose to have a hospital birth expect to have an IV, electronic fetal monitoring and an epidural because the use of these procedures has become so common and standard that their safety is automatically assumed. But because something is widely used and accepted does not mean that it is safe. To best illustrate this point think back to when prophylactic forceps deliveries were common and therefore assumed safe. It took decades before the obstetric community finally agreed that prophylactic forceps deliveries were not in the best of interest of mothers and babies. But what about the procedures and interventions used today: are they safe? Exploring the option of home and birthing center births with midwives for low-risk women should be at the core of the national health care reform and research. Instead, several generations of high-tech, low-touch birth and a pervasive cultural belief that birth is imminently dangerous – even in healthy, low-risk women – has led to powerful cultural blinders that limit options for women. The decision to have a natural birth should be embraced and not ostracized because it is not the social norm. Giving birth carries a much bigger impact than a onetime mere medical event. It is the purpose of this paper to pay respect to the hundreds of women that ripple the waters in exchange for the ultimate experience. For the vast majority of history, childbirth has been a â€Å"woman’s thing† and was attended by midwives at home. The word midwife itself means with the woman. Men themselves were not allowed in the birth chamber and thus were excluded from witnessing this uniquely female act. This way of practice remained unchanged for most of history as we know it. Men did began making their way into childbirth; however, and within a short period of time, surgeon and physician guilds were formed. Eventually birth was pushed from home to hospital and out of control of the ones it meant the most to. The first men to enter the birth chamber were not doctors; they were the barber-surgeons who were, as their name says, hair cutters and beard shavers; however, the also had skills which included using their knives and other tools for bloodletting and extracting dead babies (Blumenfeld-Kosinski 1990). When it became obvious that the mother or child was going to die because she could not deliver the baby, the doctor-surgeons were called in t attempt to save a life. They would use their tools to take the baby out of the woman’s body in pieces: the cranioclast would crush open the baby’s skull, the crochets would dismember it and remove it in pieces. Eventually a guild of surgeons formed in England around 1540 and made statute that specifically stated, â€Å"No carpenter, smith, weaver, or woman shall practice surgery† (Mitford 1992). Midwifery was the first field of medicine taught in medical schools and there was no standard curriculum; therefore, many of the new doctors were inadequately trained Medical school training did not include clinical training and the vast majority of new doctors had not witnessed on solitary delivery when that attended their first paying patient and because of this most of the early doctors did more harm than good (Wertz and Wertz 1989). New interventions continued into the twentieth century. And along with this time period of great advances in health came breakthrough new medical interventions into childbirth, each with their own unrecognized and potentially dangerous risks and side effects. How can anyone forget the physical, emotional, and psychological results of DES (diethylstilbestrol), x-rays, discouraged breastfeeding, separation of families during labor and the belief that babies didn’t feel pain. Diethylstilbestrol, more commonly known as DES, was the first synthetic estrogen ever synthesized and prescribed to millions of pregnant women between 1938 and 1971. Believing that low levels of estrogen caused miscarriages, DES was hailed as a wonder drug because it supposedly prevented miscarriages, was cheap to produce and could be taken orally. In 1947, under much pressure from major drug companies, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved DES for use during pregnancy. In 1952, questions concerning the effectiveness of DES in preventing miscarriages were raised. The appearance of clear cell adenocarcinoma (CCA) began appearing in young women in 1901; and in 1971. The FDA then advised against the use of DES during pregnancy but some physicians continued to prescribe the drug to pregnant women. The DES incident was an embarrassment to the FDA (Northrup 1994). The women who took DES were at an increased risk for breast cancer. And as this paper will show, this was just the tip of the iceberg. Following DES, x-rays were introduced. They were considered safe and commonly used for almost 50 years-until the negative consequences on embryogenesis, carcinogenesis and genetic mutations were discovered in the late 1950’s. Fetuses and children are ten to twenty times more susceptible to the carcinogenic effects of radiation because their cells are rapidly dividing, and children born to mothers who had x-rays have a higher incidence of leukemia, Down’s syndrome, and among the daughters, more miscarriages and fetal deaths during their childbearing years. The genetic mutations that occurred can be passed down to subsequent generations (Cunningham 1997). X-rays were used for everything from determining gestational age, multiple pregnancy, presentation of baby, and most commonly, pelvic measurements of the mother, all of which could have been determined by less intrusive ways. Obstetricians, and pediatricians, in this era believed that babies did not feel pain and if there is one thing even the most uneducated person knows, it is that babies do feel pain. The â€Å"no pain† belief was so strong that surgical procedures were done without anesthesia or anesthetic. And what is even more appalling about this is that circumcision without pain relief for infant boys continued beyond this era and into the 1990’s and some speculate that anesthesia/anesthetic is not used 100% of the time even today (Ritter 1992). According to current ethical guidelines, surgical procedures cannot be performed on research animals without anesthesia. The following is a statement made by Marilyn Milos after viewing an infant circumcision without any pain relief: †¦The silence was broken by a piercing scream-the baby’s reaction to having his foreskin pinched and crushed as the doctor attached the clamps to his penis. The shriek intensified when the doctor inserted an instrument between the foreskin and the glans, tearing the two structures apart†¦the baby started shaking his head back and forth- the only part of his body free to move-as the doctor used another clamp to crush the foreskin lengthwise, which he then cut†¦The baby began to gasp and choke, breathless from his screams. How could anyone say circumcision is painless when the suffering is so obvious†¦? (Milos ) But yet, physicians felt that the response express by the infant during the circumcision were not due to pain. Thankfully, today most circumcisions are performed with some form of pain relief and physicians acknowledge that babies do feel pain. In the current era of medicine and child birth, there are various methods used but this paper will focus on those with the worst outcomes. Amniotomy, the artificial rupturing of membranes, is performed by obstetricians who wish to speed up the natural process of labor, check for signs of fetal distress or for the insertion of an internal fetal monitor. While amniotomy does in fact cause labor to speed up, the complications include cord prolapsed in which the umbilical cord comes down before the baby and results in a life-threatening situation typically requiring an emergency cesarean, cord compression during contractions, greater head molding and an effect on the fetal heart rate ( Goer 1995). It is common place in today’s hospital to keep laboring women from eating and drinking during labor. The belief surrounding the policy of nothing by mouth is fear that a woman under general anesthesia will aspirate the stomach contents. Today general anesthesia has been replaced with epidural anesthesia, thus eliminating the use of general anesthesia and the chance of aspiration. The researchers of one study stated that eating and drinking in labor are not always a factor in maternal aspiration but faulty anesthesia administration almost always is ( Broach and Newton 1988). What is puzzling is that it is not humane to let a woman experience some pain during labor, but it is human to let her starve during a physically demanding process in her life. The national cesarean section in 1965 was at 4. 5% and has quickly risen to 32% as of 2011 (Hamilton et al. 2012). It is believed by many in the medical community that cesareans sections reduce the perinatal mortality rate and many also believe that cesarean delivery is safer for the baby, but neither of these are true. Cesarean sections do have adverse effects on both mother and baby when compared with a vaginal delivery. The risks to the mother, other than that of increased maternal mortality, include damage to uterine blood vessel, damage to the urinary bladder, respiratory complication and lower subsequent fertility. Why has this number ballooned out of proportion? ChildBirth Connection offers the following bulleted points: The following interconnected factors appear to contribute to the high cesarean rate: Low priority of enhancing womens own abilities to give birth, Side effects of common labor interventions, Refusal to offer the informed choice of vaginal birth, and limited awareness of harms that are more likely with cesarean section. (ChildBirth Connection) It is the job of every medical professional to provide and offer these answers to new and existing parents, not just for stats but for the well being of those they care for and the life they are going to bring into the world. Medical professionals tend to neglect the emotional and psychological aspects of procedures, but they are just as important as more and more women suffer from postpartum depression, these issues need to be addressed. So how are midwives and home birth so different from hospital births? The explanations are virtually endless, but revolve around a few central issues; following evidence-based practice, prevention instead of intervention, giving control of the birth process back to women, and trusting women’s ability to give birth. Childbirth is a natural and normal process in a womans’s life and a woman’s body is well designed to birth a baby. Midwives have a general philosophy that as long as everything is progressing smoothly, whether fast or slow, and there are no signs of tension or stress in the mother or baby, there is no need for interventions. Each womans labor is different and her experience is unique so there really is not a concept of a â€Å"normal labor and delivery†. Some labors are 30 minutes and others may last 3 days. Some women feel little or no pain during birth and other find the contractions excruciating. Some women prefer to eat in labor and some cant. Midwives respect and appreciate this uniqueness, where obstetricians find it pathological and must do something to make it more normal and thus controllable. Midwives follow a care model which revolves around pregnancy and birth as normal events. They focus on prevention rather than intervention or treatment. Every intervention discussed previously is rarely, if ever used in a typical midwife-attended home birth. support during labor is used instead of anesthetics or anesthesia. Midwives aim to build the mothers confidence in herself and in her body’s ability to give birth without the use of medical interventions by educating her about the various opinions available to her and encouraging her during the rough parts of the pregnancy, labor or delivery. Midwives encourage the partners to emotionally an physically support their pregnant partner, exercise and ear properly with their partner, as well as educate them about the entire process of bringing a child into the world. Medicine has led to a decrease in women’s confidence in their ability to give birth. Women have become used to hearing about or having medical interventions used during pregnancy and childbirth that they have begun to feel that they simply couldn’t have a baby without it. The decrease in women’s ability to give birth afflicts our society as a whole and has led to the increased dependence on the medical system. Women depend on their doctors to confirm their pregnancy with a blood test and then they rely on the doctor to tell them their exact due date. Ultrasounds to judge the growth rate of the developing baby has replaced relying on obtaining and adequate nutrition and having an appropriate weight gain. These views have caused so many women to think of pregnancy and childbirth as something that they have to go through in order to have a baby instead of a moving and power experience-after all how can it be a powerful experience when you are powerless. Low risk mothers should have the right to decide if she wants to delivery her baby at home. Who are we to rob them of the ultimate sacrifice?